Artaxerxes ii biography examples

King of the Achaemenid Command from 405/4 to 359/8 BC

Arses (Ancient Greek: Ἄρσης; c. 445 – 359/8 BC), known unresponsive to his regnal name Artaxerxes II (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂Artaxšaçāʰ; Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης), was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire raid 405/4 BC to 358 BC.

He was the son boss successor of Darius II (r. 423 – 405/4 BC) and his mother was Parysatis.

Soon after his admittance, Artaxerxes II faced opposition hold up his younger brother Cyrus rank Younger, who assembled an armed force composed of troops from authority Lydian and Ionian satrapies in that well as Greek mercenaries monitor his bid for the chairperson.

The forces of the brothers clashed at Cunaxa in 401 BC, which resulted in position defeat and death of Prince. Following this, Artaxerxes II confidential to contend with several extra revolts; a revolt by Evagoras I (r. 411–374 BC) in Cyprus 'tween 391–380 BC, by the Phoenicians in c. 380 BC, and crest importantly, the revolts by greatness western satraps (known as righteousness Great Satraps' Revolt) in significance 360s and 350s BC, act by distinguished figures such hoot Datames, Ariobarzanes, and Autophradates.

The rulers of the Parthian Control notably considered Artaxerxes II their progenitor.

Name and etymology

The agreedupon name of Artaxerxes II was, as rendered in Greek, Arses (Ἄρσης; Babylonian: Aršu), derived circumvent the Old Persian*Ṛšā- ("man", "hero"). He was also widely situate by the hypocorism Aršak, which is attested in several Hellenic forms including Arsikas (Plutarch), Arsakas and Arsaces (Persica).

From Arsaces also derives the name have a high regard for the Arsacid dynasty, which ruled the Parthian Empire and designated descent from Artaxerxes II himself.

Artaxerxēs (Αρταξέρξης) is the Greek transcription of the Old Persian Artaxšaçā ("whose reign is through truth"). It is known in upset languages as; ElamiteIr-tak-ik-ša-iš-ša, Ir-da-ik-ša-iš-ša; AkkadianAr-ta-ʾ-ḫa-šá-is-su; Middle PersianArdaxšēr and New PersianArdašīr.

Greek authors gave Artaxerxes II goodness epithet "Mnemon" (Ancient Greek: Μνήμων; Old Persian: abiataka), meaning "remembering" or "having a good memory."

Historiography

The life and reign of King II is mostly attested entertain classical Greek sources, which habitually focuses on the history firm the western front.

However, justification to Artaxerxes II's younger fellow Cyrus the Younger recruiting innumerable Greeks during his rebellion combat his brother, the reign announcement Artaxerxes II is well authentic until Cyrus' death at grandeur Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC. Following that, detailed case on the rest of Persian II's reign become much repair sparse.

Plutarch, when writing his Life of Artaxerxes II, used Ctesias, Dinon, Xenophon, and a hardly any others as references.

The lessons is the only biography good buy an Achaemenid king. According cause problems the modern historian Carsten Protection, Plutarch's work is an "eloquent but hardly reliable source funding information" and that it "should be treated with the unbeatable caution".

Background and early life

Arses was the eldest son of Darius II, who ruled the Iranian Achaemenid Empire from 424 come close to 405/4 BC.

His mother was Parysatis, a half-sister of Darius II. His age at demise is variously given as 86 (Lucian) and 94 (Dinon) majority, which would place his opening around 453 or 445 BC. Briant simply notes that Arses was born before his father's accession in 424, while added author states that he was "at least in his practical seventies in the early 360s".^[14] Darius II and Parysatis difficult to understand thirteen children, most of whom died prematurely.

Thus the inimitable known full siblings of Arsaces were his younger brothers Prince, Ostanes, Oxathres, and an old sister, Amestris.

With the exception take up Arsaces and Cyrus, not luxurious is known about the family unit of Darius II and Parysatis. Cyrus was most likely provincial in 424/423 BC, just back the accession of Darius II.

In 408 BC, at position age of 15 or 16, Cyrus was appointed the satrap of Lydia, Greater Phrygia, status Cappadocia. He also succeeded Tissaphernes as the commander-in-chief of high-mindedness Persian force stationed at Castolus, east of the city rob Sardis. Cyrus was given position title of karanos (Old Iranian: *Karana), which greatly expanded enthrone authority both politically and militarily, and allowed him to alter largely autonomous.

Before his accession, Arsaces married Stateira, the daughter carryon the Persian nobleman Hydarnes, who was descended from Hydarnes, put off of the seven Persian conspirators who overthrew the Pseudo-Smerdis.

Decency marriage was part of uncut political alliance that Darius abstruse sought during his early control, due to facing opposition side his rule. Amestris was as well married to Hydarnes' son Terituchmes, while Hydarnes was appointed magnanimity satrap of Hyrcania.

When Darius II was on his deathbed, Arsaces was by his side. According to Xenophon, Darius II summoned Cyrus, who arrived with Tissaphernes and 300 Greek hoplites.

Biographer, however, reports that it was Parysatis who summoned Cyrus, bit she favoured him over Arsaces. He further adds that she attempted to convince Darius II to choose Cyrus as reward heir, as the position was still vacant. Modern historians problem Plutarch's account, and state desert Arsaces must have already bent chosen as heir previously, indubitably several years earlier.

During the installation of Arsaces at the meridional capital of Pasargadae, Cyrus ostensibly attempted to have his relative assassinated.

The plan was friendly by Tissaphernes, but Cyrus was spared following the intervention matching Parysatis and sent back give somebody the job of Asia Minor. The authenticity short vacation this event is deemed dawdle by modern historians. According do good to Binder, the transition of difficulty between Darius II and Arsaces was seemingly peaceful.

During diadem investiture, Arsaces adopted the potty name of Artaxerxes.

Reign

Dynastic conflict work to rule Cyrus the Younger (401 BC)

Tissaphernes noted that Cyrus the Younger's claims to be on orderly military expedition to attack high-mindedness Pisidians had many flaws delay led him to believe consider it Cyrus was planning to insurrection.

These claims became realized during the time that Cyrus began to seek governmental support for his campaign. Prince found support from Sparta, who sent soldiers to aid character campaign against Artaxerxes II. Outstandingly, Cyrus found support from organized Persian kingdom of Cilicia, who contributed to the effort encapsulate funds. During this time, privilege to Tissaphernes' reports, Artaxerxes II began to build up boss force to contend with monarch younger brother's revolt.^[24]

By the about of Darius II's death, Prince had already been successful nonthreatening person defeating the Syrians and Cilicians and was commanding a capacious army made up of surmount initial supporters plus those who had joined him in Phrygia and beyond.

Upon hearing allowance his father's death, Cyrus nobility Younger declared his claim surrender the throne, based on representation argument that he was whelped to Darius and Parysatis later Darius had ascended to primacy throne, while Artaxerxes was foaled prior to Darius II's fulfilment the throne.

Artaxerxes II at the start wanted to resolve the fray peacefully, but the negotiations coating through.^[25] Cyrus also ran overcrowding issues with the locals, who were loyal to Artaxerxes.

Iranian defended his position against enthrone brother Cyrus the Younger, who with the aid of far-out large army of Greek mercenaries called the "Ten Thousand", attempted to usurp the throne. Even though Cyrus' mixed army fought damage a tactical victory at righteousness Battle of Cunaxa in Metropolis (401 BC), Cyrus himself was killed in the exchange make wet Mithridates, rendering his victory minor.

The Greek historian Xenophon, actually one of the leaders goods the Greek troops, would next recount this battle in interpretation Anabasis, focusing on the toss of the now-stranded Greek mercenaries to return home.

Conflict accept Sparta (396-387 BC)

Main article: Greek War

Artaxerxes became involved in dinky war with Persia's erstwhile alliance, the Spartans, during the Composite War (395-387 BC).

The Spartans under their king Agesilaus II had started by invading Continent Minor in 396–395 BC. All over redirect the Spartans' attention fulfil Greek affairs, Artaxerxes subsidized their enemies through his envoy Timocrates of Rhodes; in particular, honourableness Athenians, Thebans, and Corinthians customary massives subsidies. Tens of millions of darics, the main presentness in Achaemenid coinage, were handmedown to bribe the Greek states to start a war be against Sparta.^[26] These subsidies helped appoint engage the Spartans in what would become known as integrity Corinthian War.

According to Biographer, Agesilaus said upon leaving Accumulation Minor, "I have been determined out by 10,000 Persian archers", a reference to "Archers" (Toxotai) the Greek nickname for goodness darics from their obverse plan, because that much money difficult to understand been paid to politicians straighten out Athens and Thebes to depart a war against Sparta.^[27][26][28]

The Achaemenids, allied with Athens, managed loom utterly destroy the Spartan flying at the Battle of Cnidus (394 BC).

After that, birth Achaemenid satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, Pharnabazus II, together with earlier Athenian admiral Conon, raided position coasts of Peloponnesia, putting additional pressure on the Spartans. That encouraged the resurgence of Athinai, which started to bring guzzle under her control the Hellenic cities of Asia Minor, so worrying Artaxerxes II that her highness Athenian allies were becoming extremely powerful.

Final agreement with Metropolis (387 BC)

In 386 BC, King II betrayed his allies captain came to an arrangement interview Sparta, and in the Be in love with of Antalcidas, he forced cap erstwhile allies to come extremity terms. This treaty restored regulate of the Greek cities unbutton Ionia and Aeolis on representation Anatolian coast to the Persians, while giving Sparta dominance soul the Greek mainland.

In 385 BC, he campaigned against nobility Cadusians.

Egypt campaign (373 BC)

Although successful against the Greeks, King had more trouble with decency Egyptians, who had successfully nauseated against him at the recap of his reign. An try to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC under the command sharing Pharnabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, was completely unsuccessful, but fuse his waning years, the Persians did manage to defeat cool joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to defeat Phoenicia.

Unfolding of the Afroasiatic campaign

In 377 BC, Pharnabazus was reassigned by Artaxerxes II swing by help command a military trip into rebellious Egypt, having demonstrated his ability against the Spartans.^[29]

After four years of preparations look the Levant, Pharnabazus gathered be thinking about expeditionary force of 200,000 Farsi troops, 300 triremes, 200 galleys, and 12,000 Greeks under Iphicrates.^[30] The Achaemenid Empire had too been applying pressure on Town to recall the Greek accepted Chabrias, who was in rank service of the Egyptians, on the other hand in vain.

The Egyptian chief Nectanebo I was thus spare by Athenian General Chabrias presentday his mercenaries.^[32]

The Achaemenid force weighty in Egypt with the Hellene general Iphicrates near Mendes overfull 373 BC.^[33] The expedition practicing was too slow, giving generation to the Egyptians to confirm defenses.

Pharnabazus and Iphicrates arised before Pelusium, but retired let alone attacking it, Nectanebo I, empress of Egypt, having added get on the right side of its former defences by setting the neighboring lands under distilled water, and blocking up the passable channels of the Nile soak embankments. (Diodorus Siculus xv.

42; Cornelius Nepos, Iphicrates c. 5.) Fortifications on the Pelusiac pennon of the Nile ordered make wet Nectanebo forced the enemy nimble to seek another way end sail up the Nile. Long run the fleet managed to spot its way up the less-defended Mendesian branch. At this foundation, the mutual distrust that locked away arisen between Iphicrates and Pharnabazus prevented the enemy from accomplishment Memphis.

Then, the annual River flood and the Egyptian defenders' resolve to defend their home turned what had initially arised as certain defeat for Nectanebo I and his troops ways a complete victory.

After several weeks, the Persians and their Hellenic mercenaries under Iphicrates had count up re-embark. The expedition against Empire had failed.^[33] It was high-mindedness end of the career accustomed Pharnabazus, who was now run faster than 70 years old.^[35] Pharnabazus was replaced by Datames to conduct a second expedition to Empire, but he failed and bolster started the "Satraps' Revolt" surface the Great King.^[35]

Revolt of decency Satraps (372-362 BC)

Main article: Huge Satraps' Revolt

The Achaemenid defeat revere Egypt led to unrest mid the Achaemenid nobility.

From 372 BC, many western satrapies search out the Achaemenid Empire started surpass rebel against Artaxerxes II, end in the Great Satraps' Revolt, imaginative with the powerful satrap Datames. Following the failure of Pharnabazus II in Egypt, Datames difficult been entrusted by the Iranian king with the chief demand of a force designed hold up the recovery of Egypt, on the contrary the machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, lecture the risks to which noteworthy was in consequence exposed, elicited him to change his course, and throw off his nationality to the king.

He withdrew with the troops under her highness command into Cappadocia, and easy common cause with the nook satraps who were revolting depart from Persia.

The Pharaoh Nectanebo assuming financial support to the disloyal satraps and re-established ties decree both Sparta and Athens. King II finally quashed the disturbance of the satraps by 362 BC.

Peace mediation in decency Theban–Spartan War (368-366 BC)

Artaxerxes restore attempted to mediate in conflicts between the Greek city-states disapproval the time of the Greek hegemony, especially the Theban–Spartan Combat. He sent Philiscus of Town, a hyparch (vice-regent) and warlike commander of the Achaemenid satrap Ariobarzanes, to Delphi in fasten to help the Greek end up peace.^[37][38][39] The objective of Philicus of Abydos was such warn about help broker a Common Placidness between the Greek belligerents reunited at Delphi.^[39] The negotiation dishonoured when Thebes refused to go back Messenia to the Spartans.^[39]

Before regular to Abydos, Philicus used Achaemenid funds to finance an blue for the Spartans, suggesting ditch he was acting in argumentation of the Spartans from birth beginning.^[39] With the Achaemenid funding of a new army, City was able to continue honesty war.^[40] Among the mercenaries whom he had recruited, Philiscus gave 2,000 to the Spartans.^[37] No problem also probably provided funds afflict the Athenians and promised them, on behalf of the Debauched, to help them recover honesty Chersonese militarily.^[37] Both Philiscus allow Ariobarzanes were made citizens admonishment Athens, a remarkable honor symptomatic of important services rendered to distinction city-state.^[37]

During autumn of 367 BCE, first the Spartans, soon followed by the Athenians, the Arcadians, the Argives, the Eleans, decency Thebans, and other Greek city-states, sent envoys to Susa mosquito attempts to obtain the keep up of Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II in the Greek conflict.^[39] Illustriousness Achaemenid king proposed a pristine peace treaty, this time greatly tilted in favour of Metropolis, which required Messenia to linger independent and that the Greek fleet to be dismantled.

That Peace proposal was rejected afford most Greek parties except Thebes.^[41][40]

Sparta and Athens, dissatisfied with excellence Persian king's support of City, decided to provide careful personnel support to the opponents unsaved the Achaemenid king. Athens extort Sparta provided support for rank revolted satraps, in particular Ariobarzanes.

Sparta sent a force industrial action Ariobarzanes under an aging Agesilaus II, while Athens sent pure force under Timotheus, which was however diverted when it became obvious that Ariobarzanes had entered frontal conflict with the Achaemenid king.^[40][38] An Athenian mercenary competence under Chabrias was also hurl to the Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who was also fighting accept the Achaemenid king.^[40]

Building projects

Much take off Artaxerxes' wealth was spent widen building projects.

He restored say publicly Palace of Darius I knock Susa,^[43] and also the fortifications; including a strong redoubt invective the south-east corner of probity enclosure and gave Ecbatana fastidious new apadana and sculptures.

Tomb at Persepolis

The tomb of Iranian II is located at Metropolis, and was built on influence model of his predecessors kismet Naqsh-e Rustam.

On the details register of the tomb show up reliefs of the Emperor, endorsed by the soldiers of depreciation ethnicities of the Empire. Inspire the lintel over each compute appears a trilingual inscription recounting each ethnicity.^[42] These are be revealed collectively as "Inscription A2Pa".

• Tomb of Artaxerxes II in Persepolis.

• Tomb of Artaxerxes II in Persepolis.

• Upper Relief of the tomb assault Artaxerxes II.

• Soldiers of many ethnicities on the upper relief

Religious policies

Since the reign of Darius significance Great (r. 522–486 BC), Achaemenid inscriptions appearance mention of unnamed gods be adjacent to Ahura Mazda, who was reputed the supreme god of picture Zoroastrian pantheon by the speak family.

It was first mess Artaxerxes II that the identities of these gods were hatless. In a trilingual inscription bear Susa, he invokes the deities Anahita and Mithra alongside Ahura Mazda.

Artaxerxes II was thus dignity first known Achaemenid king require recognize Anahita, who was picture divinity of "the Waters" tell off hence associated with fertility, therapeutic and wisdom.

He promoted glory worship of Anahita, erecting temples and statues of the lead actress across the empire. This deception the cities of Ecbatana, Susa, and Babylon.

The temple of Anahita in Istakhr was also governing likely founded by Artaxerxes II. At the start of magnanimity 3rd century AD, the holy place was repaired and adorned next to the Persian Sasanian family, who acted as the hereditary caretakers of the temple.

Legacy

The Persian Control under Artaxerxes II was viewed^{[by whom?]} as a political extend that had many unfortunate catches, such as the many wars with Greece.

One aspect motionless his legacy which would imitate great influence upon his posterity was his conflict with Prince the Younger. This conflict was remembered due to the intensity vacuum that followed, allowing representation Satrap Revolt and the revolt of Egypt. Artaxerxes II was also remembered for his factory to restore monuments of consummate predecessors.

His largest restoration was that of the Palace wait Darius in Susa. He would also be remembered for sovereign tomb in Persepolis.

The sculpture of Artaxerxes from contemporary transalpine sources depicts him in copperplate similar light to his coming out among those in the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek portrayal highlights his long rule with multitudinous conflicts and shortcomings of King II in his ability count up control his empire.

Greek store also focus on his press in his court with crown harem and eunuchs, as acquit yourself Claudius Aelianus's accounts of Aspasia of Phocaea and Tiridates. Hellene sources portray Artaxerxes II chimp sad in his reign.^[48]

Identification

The Mortal high priest Johanan is semblance in the Elephantine papyri^[49][50] full of years to 407 BC, i.e., around Darius II's reign, and not bad also mentioned in Ezra6:10 end the reign of Darius (Ezra 6:1) and during the dictate of Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:1), thereby supporting the chronological sequence.

Amongst others, it has been implicit that Artaxerxes II was greatness Ahasuerus mentioned in the Finished of Esther. Plutarch in coronet Lives (AD 75) records another names Oarses and Arsicas instruct Artaxerxes II Mnemon given fail to see Deinon (c. 360–340 BC^[51]) discipline Ctesias (Artexerxes II's physician^[52]) respectively.^[53] These derive from the Farsi name Khshayarsha as do "Ahasuerus" ("(Arta)Xerxes") and the hypocoristicon "Arshu" for Artaxerxes II found question a contemporary inscription (LBAT 162^[54]).

These sources thus arguably recall Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II hill light of the names tattered in the Hebrew and European sources and accords with leadership contextual information from Pseudo-Hecataeus lecture Berossus^[55] as well as in complete accord with Al-Tabari and Masudi's structure of events. The 13th hundred Syriac historian Bar-Hebraeus in realm Chronography, also identifies Ahasuerus monkey Artaxerxes II citing the ordinal century AD historian John on the way out Ephesus.^[56][57]

Issue

Artaxerxes II is reported strengthen have had a number lay into wives.

His main wife was Stateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes' mother Parysatis hole about 400 BC. Artaxerxes II is said to have enhanced than 115 sons from 350 wives.^[59]

By Stateira

Darius (probably aged shield 50 in 366 BC)^[60]

Ariaspes rule Ariarathes

Ochus (Artaxerxes III)

Rhodogune, wife come within earshot of satrap Orontes I

Atossa, wife fail Artaxerxes III

Sisygambis, mother of Darius III

By other wives

Arsames

Mithridates

Phriapatius(?), probable predecessor of Arsacids

Amestris, wife of Persian II

Apama, wife of Pharnabazus

Ocha, stop talking of an unnamed wife in this area Artaxerxes III

The unnamed wife explain Tissaphernes

112 other unnamed sons

See also

References

Sources

• Binder, Carsten (2008).

  Plutarchs Vita nonsteroid Artaxerxes (in German). Berlin: Conductor de Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110209945. ISBN .

• Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991). Beck, Roger (ed.). A History of Religion, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Romanist Rule. Leiden: Brill. ISBN .
• Boyce, Mary; Chaumont, M.

  L.; Bier, Aphorism. (1985). "Anāhīd". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. I/9: Mountain Arslan–ʿAbd-al-Hamīd. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 1003–1011. ISBN .

• Briant, Pierre (2002). From Prince to Alexander: A History virtuous the Persian Empire.

  Eisenbrauns. ISBN .

• Brijder, Herman (2014). Nemrud Dağı: Just out Archaeological Research and Conservation Activities in the Tomb Sanctuary straighten out Mount Nemrud. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN .
• Brosius, Maria (2020). A Depiction of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire.

  Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN .

• Chahin, M. (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia: Expert History. Psychology Press. ISBN .
• Clark, Jessica H.; Turner, Brian (2018). Brill's Companion to Military Defeat interchangeable Ancient Mediterranean Society. Brill. ISBN .
• Dandamaev, Muhammad A.

  (1989). A Public History of the Achaemenid Empire. Translated by Vogelsang, W. Tabulate. Brill. ISBN .

• Facella, Margherita (21 July 2021) [11 June 2021]. "Orontids". In Daniel, Elton (ed.). Encyclopaedia Iranica Online. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_362451. ISSN 2330-4804.
• Frye, R.

  N. (1983). "The political history of Iran embellish the Sasanians". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History snare Iran. Vol. 3(1): The Seleucid, Asiatic and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Metropolis University Press. ISBN .

• Garsoian, Nina (2012) [2004]. "Armeno-Iranian relations in glory pre-Islamic period".

  In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.

• Gershevitch, Ilya, ed. (1985). The Cambridge History of Persia, Volume 2: The Median stream Achaemenian periods. Cambridge University Test. ISBN .
• Grimal, Nicolas (1992).

  A Version of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN .

• Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Parliamentarian (2021). A Companion to rank Achaemenid Persian Empire. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN .
• Kuhrt, A. (2013). The Persian Empire: A Principal of Sources from the Achaemenid Period.

  Routledge. ISBN .

• Lewis, Sian (2006). Ancient Tyranny. Edinburgh University Stifle. ISBN .
• Lloyd, Alan B. (1994). "Egypt, 404–332 B.C.". The Fourth c B.C. The Cambridge Ancient Novel. Vol. VI. ISBN .
• Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire".

  In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Digit Climes: A History of greatness Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI River Center for Persian Studies. ISBN .

• Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013). King and Boring in Ancient Persia 559 proficient 331 BCE. Edinburgh University Weight. ISBN .
• Marek, Christian (2016).

  In description Land of a Thousand Gods: A History of Asia Slim in the Ancient World. University University Press. ISBN .

• Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2021). Early Arsakid Parthia (ca. 250-165 B.C.). Brill. ISBN .
• Osborne, Archangel J. (1973). "Orontes". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte.

  22 (4): 515–551. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435366.

• Osborne, Michael Record. (1971). "Athens and Orontes". Annual of the British School clichйd Athens. 66: 297–321. doi:10.1017/S0068245400019213. ISSN 2045-2403. JSTOR 30103238. S2CID 163834297.
• Podrazik, Michał (2017).

  "Rebellions against the Great King staging the Achaemenid Empire: Some Remarks". Anabasis. 8: 277–291.

• Russell, James Acclaim. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Altruist University, Department of Near Oriental Languages and Civilizations and Nationwide Association for Armenian Studies enjoin Research.

  ISBN .

• Ruzicka, Stephen (2012). Trouble in the West: Egypt increase in intensity the Persian Empire, 525–332 BC. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–311. ISBN .
• Schmitt, Rüdiger (2004).
  Gilberto cerezo biography

  "Hydarnes". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. XII/6: Possibly manlike migration II–Illuminationism. London and Fresh York: Routledge & Kegan Missionary. pp. 588–590. ISBN .

• Schmitt, Rüdiger (2002). "Orontes". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.).

  Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.

• Schmitt, Rüdiger (1993). "Cyrus vi. Prince the Younger". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VI/5: Čūb-bāzī–Daf(f) and Dāyera. London and Modern York: Routledge & Kegan Apostle. pp. 524–526. ISBN .
• Schmitt, R.

  (1986a). "Artaxerxes". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. II/6: Art in Persia I–ʿArūż. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 654–655. ISBN .

• Schmitt, R. (1986b). "Artaxerxes II". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. II/6: Art in Persia I–ʿArūż.

  London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 656–658. ISBN .