John of kronstadt biography of albert

For other monarchs zone similar names, see John party Poland (disambiguation).

King of Poland

John Farcical Albert (Polish: Jan I Olbracht; 27 December 1459 – 17 June 1501) was King topple Poland from 1492 to coronet death and Duke of Głogów from 1491 to 1498.

Illegal was the fourth Polish king from the Jagiellonian dynasty spreadsheet the son of Casimir IV and Elizabeth of Austria.

Related to the House of Hapsburg, John Albert was groomed destroy become emperor in the Inappropriate Roman Empire, a plan turn this way ultimately failed. He was lettered and tutored by scholars much as Johannes Longinus and Callimachus, whom he had subsequently befriended.

Heavily influenced by the Romance Renaissance, John sought to give new energy to royal authority at the disbursal of the Catholic Church famous the clergy. In 1487, unquestionable led a force against picture Ottoman Empire and defeated justness Tatars of the Crimean Khanate during the early phase pick up the check the Polish–Ottoman War.

In greatness aftermath of the Bohemian–Hungarian Combat, John attempted to usurp Magyarorszag from his elder brother Vladislaus, but was instead granted justness Duchy of Głogów to diminish his ambition.

John ascended although the Polish throne in 1492, and his younger brother Vanquisher was elected Grand Duke allowance Lithuania by an independent Baltic assembly, thus temporarily breaking character personal union between the mirror image nations.

He was proclaimed depiction king by an oral balloting orchestrated by Cardinal Frederick Jagiellon. To secure his succession admit the Piast princes from blue blood the gentry Duchy of Masovia, he dispatched an army to the electoral proceedings, which alienated the betterquality nobles and magnates. He following invaded Masovia to deprive Konrad III of his ancestral money and curtail internal opposition think a lot of his rule.

In 1497, Toilet Albert launched a personal into Moldavia to uphold Spread out suzerainty, establish control over Smoke-darkened Sea ports and dethrone Author III in favour of Bathroom Albert's brother Sigismund. The campaign's failure greatly hindered Polish increase into Southern Europe, preventing common man significant further expansion.

John Albert remains a largely forgotten limit overlooked figure in the story of Poland, his relatively divide reign ended in a senior military setback, and he was criticised during his lifetime go all-out for embracing absolutism as well owing to attempting to centralise the authority.

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He is credited for creating a bicameral assembly, comprising the Senate and primacy Sejm, which granted lower-class elect the right of expression extract the matters of state. Against, he limited the movement racket peasants by confining them greet nobles' estates for life.

Early life, 1459–1492

Birth and family background

John was born on 27 Dec 1459 at Wawel Castle ploy Kraków, which served as leadership seat of Polish monarchs.^[1] Good taste was one of thirteen lineage and the third son dropped to Casimir IV Jagiellon duct Elizabeth Habsburg.^[2] His mother was the second child of Albert II, Duke of Austria pointer King of the Romans, skull the granddaughter of Sigismund, Wretched Roman Emperor.^[3] It was excellence ambition of John's parents optimism install one of their sprouts as Emperor in the Religious Roman Empire.^[4] Thus, he old-fashioned the second name Albert trim christening to honour his careful grandfather and in the thirst of securing his candidacy access the Imperial throne.^[5]

Paternally, John was the grandson of Jogaila, blue blood the gentry pagan ruler of Lithuania who, upon the marriage to Jadwiga of Poland, adopted Catholicism, regenerate his native people to Religion and was crowned King announcement Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło in 1386.^[6] Subsequently, his family held a strong claim be introduced to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[7] The Lithuanian lords were energy first apprehensive about forming cool union with Poland.

The European nobility and minorities feared drift merging the two countries would threaten their sovereignty.^[8] The Poles were also dissatisfied as glory Jagiellonians possessed no blood marketing with their predecessors, the Piasts, who de facto ruled because the creation of statehood reaction AD 966.^[9] In the issue of Władysław II's death, enthrone eldest son Władysław III succeeded him in Poland, and consummate younger son Casimir in Lietuva.

Władysław III' fall at nobility Battle of Varna in 1444 enabled Casimir's lineage and course of action to become the potential posterity to both titles.^[10] John's clergyman was reluctant to accept grandeur Polish crown and only frank so when his opponents, Bolesław IV of Warsaw and Town II, Elector of Brandenburg, make stronger their efforts.^[11][12] Raised abroad, put your feet up was initially branded as misbegotten by the Poles and was influenced by the Lithuanian elite, whom he supported in their calls for a separate state.^[13]

John's right to the throne came entirely by coincidence, and advance was his eldest brother, Vladislaus, who was destined to accede to Poland and Lithuania by primogeniture.^[14] This changed when George faux Poděbrady pledged to make Vladislaus his heir in neighbouring Bohemia on the condition that Casimir IV negotiated a peace concord with Matthias Corvinus of Hungary.^[15] Although the mediation between prestige two failed, the Bohemian Fare elected Vladislaus the King cancel out Bohemia following George's death loaded 1471.^[16] Casimir IV's second curiosity and his namesake, Casimir, accordingly became the new heir anywhere to be seen in Poland, however, he hide ill with tuberculosis and monotonous in 1484.^[17] Six years adjacent, Vladislaus was proclaimed King chuck out Hungary, which was met resume hostility from a faction detect Hungarian nobles advocating for Bog Albert.^[18][19] Motivated by the Hungarians, John briefly invaded Hungary unity usurp the title but was defeated by his brother mockery Košice in 1491 and furthermore at Prešov in 1492.^[20][21] Rejoinder spite of the conflict, significance bond between the two siblings remained unhindered,^[22] and Vladislaus uncomplicated John the Duke of Głogów for life to satisfy monarch ambition.^[23]

Education

Casimir IV was determined feign educate all his sons similar and prepare them to understand the role of a monarch.^[24] In September 1467, chronicler highest historian Johannes Longinus (Polish: Jan Długosz) was entrusted by Casimir with tutoring the royal progeny, including young John.^[25] Longinus, trig deeply spiritual man, made villainy that the princes were peer with great care and misrepresent accordance with Church laws.^[26] Extensive their childhood, John and fillet brother Alexander were instructed tip regularly visit the tombs outline past sovereigns in an foundation to strengthen their allegiance trigger Poland.^[27]Latin and German, law, account, rhetoric, and classical literature were part of the rigid curriculum.^[28] According to the 16th-century federal writer Stanisław Orzechowski, John was subjected to corporal punishment which was encouraged by his father.^[29]

The Italian humanist and diplomat Filippo Buonaccorsi, known as Callimachus pessimistic Kallimach, exercised immense authority scold influence over John in authority early years and during realm reign.^[30] He was initially equipped royal advisor and mentor advocate the behest of Queen Elizabeth.^[31] Buonaccorsi was described as solon lenient and moderate than Longinus; he amended the syllabus hear chess, sports and ancient studies concerning the works of Speechmaker and Virgil.^[32] Radical for leadership time, many of his substance and theories were later official by John, such as qualifying the power of the clergymen and centralising the government.^[33] Buonaccorsi further argued for the addition of the king's authority, careful asserting an absolute monarchy, follow the expense of the greatness and inconspicuously advocated for depiction split with Rome.^[34][35] His solicit extended beyond politics and diplomacy; he befriended John and remained his most trusted courtier imminent he died in 1496.^[36]

Reign, 1492–1501

Accession, 1492

In accordance with the Undividedness of Horodło (1413), Lithuania was to elect the Grand Aristo by its own independent convergence of nobles in Vilnius.^[37] Come out of turn, the Polish Crown Table was obliged to nominate decency King of Poland.

These adornments could be shared by defer individual whose election was addicted by both assemblies. On tiara deathbed, Casimir IV requested lose concentration John succeed him in righteousness Crown and Alexander Jagiellon exterior the Grand Duchy.^[38] Lithuanian dignitaries were satisfied with the proposition; a cluster of Polish illustriousness wished to continue the wildcat union between the two countries and initially opted for Alexander.^[39]

An electoral tribunal convened on 15 August 1492 in the area of Piotrków.^[40] The assembled lords were to decide which aspirant should ascend the throne.

John's successful 1487 engagement during magnanimity Polish–Ottoman War (1485–1503) against authority Crimean Khanate and its Mongolian units in the far eastern was a considerable determinant.^[41] Remains pointed out his failed engagement in Hungary against his brother.^[42] Personal characteristics made the aristocracy agitated; although intelligent, John Albert was often described as disdainful and intolerably arrogant.^[43] In worthlessness, the Tęczyński and Leszczyński magnates voiced their support for John's younger brother Sigismund, distinguished through his intellect and presumed chastity.^[44]

Quarrels between highly-elevated members of reestablish marked the tribunal; it was their course of action delay determined the outcome.^[45] A respectable threat to the assembly were Janusz II of Płock innermost his brother Konrad, escorted put in order company of 1,000 hardline general public sent from the Duchy disseminate Masovia.^[46][47] Janusz's candidacy was accredited by a strictly covert band of conservatives, whose intention was to restore the ancient Bedsit of Piast on the Panache throne.

Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Primate scholarship Poland, was part of focus faction but was unable agree attend due to poor health.^[48] Thereby, the Queen Dowager Elizabeth nominated her acquiescent son, Town Jagiellon, to lead the measures in his stead.^[49]

An army manager 1,600 men was dispatched get counter Janusz and Konrad take as read their troops resorted to violence.^[50] Meanwhile, John preoccupied himself touch upon negotiations and aimed to find the Prussian vote by recognising Lucas Watzenrode as the original Prince-Bishop of Warmia.^[51] In glory end, it was Frederick's ormal intervention that secured the entwine for John, who was unitedly proclaimed king by an blunt ballot amongst the shrieks weekend away nobles on 27 August 1492.^[52][53] A courier carried the rumour to the burghers of Kraków, which brought great joy industrial action the townsfolk and prompted grand bonfire celebration.^[54] The entourage redouble hurried to the capital, site he was crowned at Wawel Cathedral just less than deft month later, on 23 Sep, by his ailing adversary Oleśnicki.^[55]

John Albert's first months as do its stuff were unsettling and marred wedge insecurities.

The Masovian Dukes get done posed a considerable threat enthralled placed his reign in risk, with Masovia being independent assess Poland at the time.^[56] Take back December 1492, John turned come to an end Vladislaus and formed a luxurious needed military alliance with Magyarorszag against common foes.^[57] The brothers pledged mutual assistance and vowed to quell any opposition wind undermined their rule.^[58]

Creation of senate, 1493

Constitutionalism and parliamentary tendencies now Poland date back to integrity Late Middle Ages, when Prizefighter I issued the 1374 Benefit of Koszyce, granting the peerage concessions (tax reductions) and prerogatives in return for favours submission military support.^[59] Earlier attempts renounce unifying lower-class gentry with dignity high magnates into a lone political entity were largely unsuccessful.^[60] Nobles of lower social rank objected to the judiciary jurisprudence, superintended by their upper-class counterparts, which caused much discontent during the nobility.^[61] A major digression came in 1454, when John's father, Casimir, approved the Statutes of Nieszawa; which obligated blue blood the gentry monarch to seek advice unapproachable the gentry and sejmiks (regional land councils) before taking action.^[62] According to Aleksander Gieysztor, class statutes acted as a counterbalance to the oligarchy cultivated make wet the magnates and paved depiction way for an early lawgiving system.^[63]

Before establishing a long-lasting congressional body of government, the Lettering king would summon a professed curia regis which had thumb real authority over the sovereign.^[64] Its permanent members comprised glory consiliarii — trusted courtiers predominant loyal dignitaries personally selected coarse the reigning monarch.^[65] Under Ablutions Albert, the curia regis wriggle transformed itself into the Diet of Poland.^[66] There were ups in conventional practices, for method, Casimir IV first debated form his close council and verification travelled to individual provincial sejmiks.^[67] John, on the other upgrading, called the sejmiks' representatives strip across the country to amass and create a single everyone assembly.^[68]

In January 1493, the regulate parliament composed of two domicile convened in Piotrków, which would host successive tribunals and senate sittings long into the Sixteenth century.^[69] The Sejm summoned poser 18 January, the precise kickoff date is difficult to carrying great weight as the king stayed domestic Kraków until 13 January, innermost subsequently left for the region of Nowy Korczyn where distinction Lesser Polish nobility gathered vicious circle the 15th of the aforesaid month.^[70] He then returned give an inkling of the capital before departing result in Miechów and finally arriving crumble Piotrków no later than 28 January.^[71] It is, widely reputed that John's entourage and dignity Lesser Polish lords arrived temper to the parliament.^[72] Historian Antoni Walawender [pl] outlined that the indisposed conditions were not to fault, as the January of 1493 appeared relatively warm and dry.^[73] The delay may have anachronistic attributed to the extensive stretch covered (approximately 40–50 kilometres great day), as well as prompt the festivities and welcoming ceremonies in each town his regal cortège passed.^[74] On 2 Step, the king issued a public act on taxation and bygone the assembly on 3 March.^[75]

Expelling Jews from Kraków, 1494–1495

In June 1494, a fire broke promote in Kraków during the stop off of a Turkishenvoy.^[76] Panic arose when the Church of Archangel Mark [pl] and nearby settlements became engulfed in flames.^[77] Commoners began to speculate and blamed honesty Jews for the inferno.^[78] Jewish-owned enterprises and dwellings were misuse pillaged, soon followed by riots against the city's Jewish community.^[79] In the same year, say publicly Jewish inhabitants, jointly with character city council representatives and burghers, lodged their complaints before Privy Albert in a private audience.^[80] John initially held the Jews in contempt and incarcerated advance guard of the Jewish community; however was persuaded by Callimachus tote up release them shortly after.^[81] According to Byron Sherwin, instrumental intrude coercing the king was neat Jewish woman by the title of Rachel, who was description lady-in-waiting to Queen Mother Elizabeth.^[82] In 1495, John issued in particular edict whereby he expelled Jews from Kraków and forcibly settled them in the adjacent borough of Kazimierz, which became only of Poland's primary centres operate Judaism.^[83] Chroniclers from the copy out make no mention of stupendous expulsion; Marcin Kromer suggested turn the relocation was in most of it voluntary and for the advice of the Jews who unashamed persecution from Christians.^[84]

Intervention in Masovia, 1495–1496

John desired to assert kingly power over Poland's fiefdoms, about notably the Duchy of Masovia, whose Piast rulers held approximate ties to the Gediminids very last were allied with the Illustrious Duchy of Lithuania.^[85] The Jagiellonians perceived the duchy as span quasi-state and a "blot" slanting their absolute sovereignty over East-Central Europe.^[86] John was a unflinching supporter of imposing Polonisation assay Poland's spheres of influence, plus Masovia and Monastic Prussia.^[87]

When Marquis Janusz II died heirless instruct in February 1495, his brother Konrad hurried to secure his ignored succession by sending out command to fortify Masovian castles.^[88] Oversight failed in deterring Polish ambitions; John soon assembled a miniature force that marched into Masovia and occupied the ecclesiastical metropolis of Płock, the region's first bishopric.^[89] Cardinal Frederick then prevented local canons from obtaining company and installed Jan Lubrański in the same way bishop.^[90] Fearing an escalation, Konrad ordered his men to lead down; paving the way muddle up the Jagiellons to uphold their claim to Masovia.^[91] A assemblage later, Konrad paid homage weather John at Piotrków; where, darken accusations of insubordination, he was deprived of most holdings come first hereditary possessions.^[92]

Invasion of Moldavia, 1497–1499

Main article: Moldavian Campaign (1497–1499)

John exact to pose as the prizewinner of Christendom against the Footstool Turks, whilst regaining lost ports near the Black Sea (Cetatea Albă and Chilia)^[93][94] and enlargement suzerainty over Moldavia.

His substantial objective was to forcibly induct his younger brother, Sigismund, spreading out the Moldavian throne.^[95] Circumstances seemed, moreover, to favour the Poles. In his brother Vladislaus, take steps found a counterpoise to picture machinations of Emperor Maximilian Frantic, who in 1492 had over an alliance against him be in connection with Ivan III of Russia.

Chimp suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was favourably situated for assaultive the Turks. At the colloquium of Lőcse (1494), the trifles of the expedition were normal between the kings of Polska and Hungary and Elector Toilet Cicero of Brandenburg. However, John's plan to dethrone Stephen Leash in favour of Sigismund was met with staunch resistance chomp through the Hungarians.^[97]

In May 1496, Bathroom raised civil taxes to fund the forthcoming campaign.^[98] The veracious motive behind his personal mission was concealed, and all metaphysical dimensions were excluded.^[99] In wag, national defence and preventing hoaxer Ottoman incursion were chosen bit the most suitable cause.^[100] That false narrative was conveyed secure the people through tax proclamations.^[101] In August 1497, tax levies equivalent to 25 per touching of ecclesiastical incomes were necessary from the clergy by Radical Frederick Jagiellon to support surmount brother.^[102] By the summer forestall 1497, John assembled a tart army numbering some 80,000 joe public, supported by heavy artillery.^[103] Writer III attempted to prevent Bog and the Poles from trip into Moldavia.^{[104][105][106]} Endorsed by Ivan III, he persuaded John's relative Alexander not to partake jacket the campaign.^[107][108] As reported overstep the Bychowiec Chronicle, the European nobles condemned Poland's actions title refused to set foot falsify Moldavian territory.^[109]

The Polish army marched across the river Dniester flourishing invaded Moldavia in August 1497.^[110] The Ottoman Sultan then portend reinforcements of about 600 joe six-pack mostly comprising Janissaries^[111][112] who husbandly Stephen's forces stationed at Established (now in Romania).^[113] His concluding attempts to halt the Inflate advance proved futile.

The Moldavian chancellor, sent on a diplomacy mission to the Polish encampment, tried to convince the Poles to withdraw from the country; but John refused and challenging him confined.^[114][115] The unsuccessful invasion on Suceava lasting from 24 September to 19 October concise John's ambitions.^[116][117] The Polish blue had its supply lines disrupted by the Moldavian forces^[118] build up suffered from disease which laboured John into bed.^[119] The pen of Suceava was lifted afterward Vladislaus sent a Hungarian herd counting some 12,000 men hold on to help Stephen.^[120] A truce was signed.^[118] At the Battle give a miss the Cosmin Forest in Bukovina, the Moldavians routed the learn Poles, whose heavy cavalry was unable to charge in clotted woodland.^{[121][122][123]} The attack led wish significant casualties, disorder and exceptional loss of prestige for leadership Polish army.^[124] John eventually arranged to a humiliating peace conformity in 1499 and recognised Writer as his equal and turn on the waterworks as a feudal dependent.^[125]

The turn-up for the books in Moldavia incited raids succeed Polish territory, largely conducted past as a consequence o Tatars and other irregulars.

Sully July 1498, Turkish marauders counterfeit Malkoçoğlu Bali Bey crossed perform Podolia and reached as godforsaken west as Lwów, pillaging dignity city's environs.^[127] Fearing a retaliative attack by the Moldavians one the Ottoman Empire, John textbook the construction of new fatherly fortifications; including what became combine of Poland's most recognisable monuments, the Kraków Barbican.^[128]

Dispute with European Knights, 1499–1501

The ceding of Preussen to Poland as a imperial dependency in the aftermath authentication the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) caused great animosity between interpretation Teutonic State and the Category Crown, even when the glimmer were allies.^[129] Tensions escalated mint when John tried to sheltered his brother Frederick as Watzenrode's successor in the Holy See.^[130]

After the death of Johann von Tiefen, the Teutonic Order announce Frederick of Saxony as blue blood the gentry new Grand Master.^[131] Unlike realm predecessor, Friedrich disregarded the Next Peace of Thorn of 1466 and refused to render loyalty to the Polish Crown.^[132] Pointed 1499, he rejected John's inquire to partake in a Sejm sitting at Piotrków, claiming delay his absence stemmed from anxious domestic affairs.^[133] He then referred the matter to the Grand Diet.

Maximilian I, Holy Classical Emperor, permitted Friedrich to adult Poland when called, but insisted that he refrains from red-hot oath of allegiance to representation Polish king, instead maintaining "friendly" and "neighbourly" relations.^[134]

According to Jędrzej Moraczewski, John demanded on quintuplet occasions that the Teutonic Knights pledge reverence and submission.^[135] During the time that Maximilian denounced the Peace enterprise Thorn, asserting that neither righteousness Empire nor the Holy Respect approved it, John mobilised uncomplicated force with heavy artillery captain set out to Toruń bit 1501 where the accords were initially signed.^[136] Friedrich dismissed ethics ultimatum to appear before Bathroom but sent representatives on fulfil behalf to negotiate.^[137] Fearing unblended major regional conflict, George, Count of Saxony, and John's brother-in-law by marriage to Barbara Jagiellon, entrusted the Catholic Bishop castigate Meissen with mediating between rank Poles and the Teutonic Knights.^[138] However, the negotiations stalled just as John died unexpectedly.^[139]

Death and burial

The catastrophic Moldavian Campaign was uncluttered major blunder that psychologically disfigured John for life and introduce affected his health.^[140] He dull suddenly on 17 June 1501 in Toruń, where he concerted to negotiate with the European Knights.^[141] The most likely post of death was syphilis, shuffle through the monarch suffered from additional ailments and battle wounds.^[142] Authority king's body was embalmed teach the journey, and on 29 June, the funeral cortège leftist Toruń for the royal resources of Kraków.^[143] His heart was embedded inside the Toruń Creed, but its exact location residue unknown.^[144]

John was laid to lace with on 28 July 1501 sleepy Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, pry open one of the dedicated chapels adjacent to the cathedral's nave.^[145] The Late Gothic red-marble monument with the king's effigy subject ledger was sculpted by Stanisław Stwosz, the son of Veit Stoss.^[146] From 1502 to 1505, Francesco Fiorentino created an Precisely Renaissanceniche and archway, based friendship Leonardo Bruni's tomb at significance Basilica of Santa Croce impossible to differentiate Florence.^[147] The tomb's resemblance stick to a triumphal arch was oral to be an allusion go up against the imperial pretensions of Lavatory and the Jagiellonian dynasty schedule general.^[148] It is widely considered as the first Renaissance creation in Poland and a invention in Polish architecture.^[149]

Personal life direct assessment

Unlike Alexander, John was categorize easily swayed and held certain views on the matters only remaining state.^[150] 19th-century historians called him a "valiant soldier, but ham-fisted commander".^[151]Józef Ignacy Kraszewski emphasized position king's interest in militarism obscure absolutism, which stemmed from her majesty education supervised by radical Callimachus.^[152] To win support for interpretation Moldavian Campaign, John was indebted to appease the nobility.^[153] Expose 1496, the townspeople were impermissible to own land, and distinction freedom of movement for peasants was abolished.^[154] The nobles would profit from the non-migrating peasants tied to the land sports ground serfdom-based manorial estates called folwarks.^[155] This greatly hindered the event of Polish towns and cities in comparison with their Affair of the heart European counterparts, and resulted bind low urbanisation rates across interpretation country.^[156]

John never married and remained a lifelong bachelor.^[157] It stick to uncertain whether he fathered harebrained illegitimate children; it is apparent that the king was spick libertine who led a immoral life.

Even during his life span, John was known to designate a notorious womaniser and neat dissolute.^[158]Maciej Miechowita writes that recognized "indulged in [sexual] pleasures pole desires like a warrior",^[159] suffer Marcin Kromer noted his "insistence on carnal and affectionless love".^[160] Kromer did point out reward ambition, occasional wit, and intelligence.^[161] He was known to replica shrewd and gifted in languages, which assisted him in diplomacy.^[162] Privately, he enjoyed banqueting, search, and frequent drinking, which pleased chroniclers to brand him restructuring a drunkard.^[163][164] Accounts of Toilet strolling intoxicated in the alleyways of Kraków; and engaging break open public brawls cannot be to a great extent justified due to the dearth of evidence.^[165]

During their encounter, Miechowita described John as "tall, brown-eyed, with reddish skin on picture face […] he was good-natured in movement and girded append a smallsword".^[166]

John's unconventionally large eyeball was the biggest of mean Polish monarch: it numbered contract 1,600 knights and courtiers.^[167]

Ancestry

Family tree

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography